Blog Part 3: Hemispheric-Specific Training for Novices to alleviate choking when Experts?

Josh Colbourn

Choking under pressure is a psychological problem that can affect both novices and experts, even though; by definition choking is only applicable to higher skilled athletes who perform poorly (From Beckmann, et al, 2012). Because, wouldn’t instances of novices performing poorly under pressure, or choking be contributed to a lack of motor skill and consistency, considering its these traits that make experts, experts in the first place.

Baumeister and Showers (1986) Argument

One can only speak of choking if the performer has already established a certain standard of performance and, hence, could have done better.

But which direction should future research head in? Trying to correct the issue in professionals after they have exhibited choking, or eliminating the effects of performance pressure failure and choking in novices before they turn pro? Considering the potential for a professional athlete, who has been trained in alleviating performance pressure failure and choking since they were a novice, I believe that the novice direction should be taken.

Previous research has succeeded in reducing the negative effects of performance pressure and thus the possibility of future choking, but experiment problems arise for most of these, even if they work. From Table A, two theories work for skilled athletes but not novices. The Secondary task theories (Bell and Hardy, 2009; Lewis and Linder, 1997) are designed to take attention away from conscious skill execution, something that harms novices (From Land & Tenenbaum, 2013))(See Table B for more). There are also theories proven successful in alleviating the negative effects that performance pressure can have on novices. Quiet-Eye training (Vine et al. 2011) shows promising signs but is focused more around the increasing perceived control that an athlete could have. While training with mild anxiety (Oudejans & Pijpers, 2010) successful research is only based on short term results. 

Table A: Choking Eliminating Experiments

This opens the opportunity to hypothesize an experiment that could do this. As shown in Table A, Hemispheric specific training (Beckmann et al, 2012) is untested on novices (to date) and could offer promising results to help aid novice athletes in their development and transition through the associative and into the autonomous stage of learning. All while having been trained in pressure reduction, and thus choking from an earlier age.

Research into hemispheric asymmetries in relation to performance of motor tasks has shown that novice performance, or the cognitive stage of learning is associated with increased left hemispheric activity. Expert performance or the autonomous stage of learning is associated with increased right hemispheric activity as well as a stronger left hemispheric inhibition (Crews, 2004; Kerick, Douglass, & Hatfield, 2004; Landers et al., 1994). With this knowledge, our hypothesised experiments training aid of hemispheric-specific training will need to enhance right hemispheric activity in our participants to have any chance of reducing performance pressure and choking.

Beckmann’s et al (2012) study which used unilateral muscle contractions (squeezing a ball in left hand) to activate and increase the contralateral right hemisphere proved successful in preventing choking (Also in Baumann et al, 2005). Explanations for this study’s success were said to be increased concentration and/ or reduced anxiety due to the behavioural aspects of the ball squeezing. Similar results were found in a neurofeedback training study which showed that activating right hemispheric activity facilitated performance via increased concentration and reduced anxiety (Landers et al., 1991; Hammond, 2007).

Our hypothesised experiment will use training aids of hemispheric-specific priming/ training and neurofeedback training, incorporated into the regular skill and fitness training programs of the novice participants in their sports of Football, Tennis and Basketball. These sports are used because they all have similar, but different simple closed skill aspects (See Table C for more). These simple pressure situations will not be created by the experiment; they will be real situations to get real pressure and real results, testing to see if the participants, at any stage of the long term study “choke” when faced with a simple/ easy motor skill execution opportunity. Each sport will have 20 male and female participants starting with novices of all ages (not just <10 year olds). From their work in Hemispheric-Specific priming/ training, it is clear that Beckmann; Gropel & Ehrlenspiel will be leading the study.

This study will provide long term results for professionals who have been trained since they were novices in concentration increase and anxiety reduction, thus eliminating possible instances of choking. It also provides the opportunity to regularly check up and fine tune training aid quantity after every real choking instance/or non-choking instance if the training aids are successful. Financially, this study will be reasonably costly, but in relation to the opportunity and research it could create, it is defiantly worth it.

This study doesn’t need to be 100% successful as we don’t know if the training aids will work, whether some participants drop out or if some of the participants develop into natural athletes and show higher than average skill ability while other don’t. But, it does need to show some success that another study in the future could build on, narrowing, changing, adding aspects that could hopefully create professionals who don’t choke under pressure.  

References –

Baumann, N., Kuhl, J., & Kazén, M. (2005). Left-hemispheric activation and self-infiltration: Testing a neuropsychological model of internalization. Motivation and Emotion, 29, 135–163.

Baumeister, R. F., & Showers, C. J. (1986). A review of paradoxical performance effects: Choking under pressure in sports and mental tests. European Journal of Social Psychology, 16, 361–383.

Beckmann, J., Gropel, P., & Ehrlenspiel, F. (2012). Preventing Motor Skill Failure Through Hemispheric-Specific Priming: Cases From Choking Under Pressure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, Vol. 3, 679-691

Bell, J, J., & Hardy, J. (2009). Effects of Attentional Focus on Skilled Performance in Golf. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 21, 163-177 Bangor University, Wales, UK

Crews, D. J. (2004). What your brain is doing when you putt. Golf Digest, 1, 100–101.

D. Corydon Hammond PhD (2007) What Is Neurofeedback?, Journal of Neurotherapy: Investigations in Neuromodulation, Neurofeedback and Applied Neuroscience, 10:4, 25-36,

Kerick, S. E., Douglass, L. W., & Hatfield, B. D. (2004). Cerebral cortical adaptations associated with visuomotor practice. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 36, 118 –129.

Land, W., & Tenenbaum, G. (2012). An Outcome and Process Oriented Examination of a Golf-Specific Secondary Task Strategy to Prevent Choking Under Pressure. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 24: 3, 303-322

Landers, D. M., Petruzzello, S. J., Salazar, W., & Crews, D. J. (1991). The influence of electrocortical biofeedback on performance in pre-elite archers. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 23, 123–129.

Landers, D., Han, M., Salazar, W., Petruzzello, S., Kubitz, K., & Gannon, T. (1994). Effects of learning on electroencephalographic and electro-cardiographic patterns in novice archers. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 25, 313–330.

Lewis, B., & Linder, D. (1997). Thinking about choking? Attentional processes and paradoxical performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 937–944.

Oudejans, R, D, R., & Pijpers, J, R. (2010). Training with mild anxiety may prevent choking under pressure under higher levels of anxiety. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 11, 44-50

Vine, S. J., Moore, L. J., & Wilson, M. R. (2011). Quiet eye training facilitates competitive putting performance in elite golfers. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 8.